In 1800, women in Paris, the capital of France, were prohibited from wearing trousers. Despite this ban and other social restrictions, however, many women challenged the law and societal conventions by adopting men’s clothing and, in some c
In 1800, women in Paris, the capital of France, were prohibited from wearing trousers. Despite this ban and other social restrictions, however, many women challenged the law and societal conventions by adopting men’s clothing and, in some cases, living like men. Their struggle was not merely about the choice of clothing; it was also a quiet rebellion for identity, freedom and equal rights.
During the French Revolution (1789–1799), many women in Paris took to the streets alongside male demonstrators and began wearing men’s clothing, particularly trousers, to overcome restrictions. They wanted the same freedoms and rights as men. This demand for women’s rights was also expressed in the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen, written by Olympe de Gouges, who was executed in 1793. She had been described as an “unnatural” woman. In 1800, Paris imposed a ban on women wearing trousers.
According to Mairin Kiziel, curator of the exhibition A Wardrobe of One’s Own: Dissenting Feminisms in the 19th Century, held at the Palais Galliera museum in Paris, the ban was intended to put an end to a period when women were demanding their rights and seeking equal participation in social and political life. In 19th-century France, women were expected to remain confined to the traditional roles of wife and mother. Their identities were defined by their clothing and feminine appearance, while painters and poets also portrayed them according to these conventional ideas. Nevertheless, many women refused to accept these restrictions. In particular, towards the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th, the number and visibility of women wearing men’s clothing increased as the first feminist movement developed alongside a growing lesbian subculture in Paris.
The right to wear men’s clothing is a relatively overlooked chapter in the history of women’s freedom. Such clothing helped women gain access to professions and places where their entry had previously been prohibited or restricted. Some adopted it to pursue education and professional careers, while for others it was a way to express their sexual identity and preferences. Newspapers mocked these women, authorities imposed restrictions on them, and medical experts described them as abnormal. Nevertheless, they continued their struggle for the freedom to choose their clothing and way of life. Their history can be explored through 10 photographs.
In the final years of the 18th century, women’s adoption of men’s-style clothing in France began with specialised riding outfits introduced from England. These outfits particularly featured jackets designed in a masculine style. Both the clothing and the women who wore it were known as “Amazons”, a name derived from the warrior women of Greek mythology. The term reflected the way society viewed these active, sports-loving women with a mixture of fascination and fear. Over time, men’s-style jackets and coats also became an important part of women’s wardrobes.
The renowned French writer and journalist George Sand refused to accept traditional gender expectations. Although women were permitted to wear feminine garments inspired by men’s clothing, wearing a complete male outfit was considered socially unacceptable. Despite this, George Sand chose to live on her o terms and adopted men’s clothing.
For her, this was not merely a protest against social conventions but also a practical necessity. According to exhibition curator Mairin Kiziel, George Sand wore men’s clothing to gain access to sections of theatres that were reserved exclusively for men. In addition, men’s clothing was less expensive than women’s garments and allowed greater freedom of movement.
It may seem surprising that, in 19th-century France’s male-dominated society, some women also took up arms and participated in wars. According to exhibition curator Mairin Kiziel, numerous historical accounts and photographs demonstrate that this was not an isolated phenomenon. Women were not permitted to join the regular army, but they could become members of voluntary, irregular military units. During the Franco-Prussian War, Marie Antoinette Lex followed this path. Wearing a military uniform, she took part in the war and helped defend the Vosges region. She also distinguished herself during the Battle of Nompatalis.
Jeanne de la Foa also took part in the war alongside her husband, Marcel. Later, when the couple travelled to Iran to conduct archaeological exploration and research, Jeanne began wearing men’s clothing again. After this journey, she adopted the male suit permanently. She also obtained a special permit for this purpose, although it is unclear on what grounds the permission was granted. Despite adopting men’s clothing, Jeanne de la Foa became a prominent figure in society. She and her husband hosted exclusive gatherings attended by influential personalities, including the French prime minister and president.
Towards the end of the 19th century, social opposition to women wearing men’s clothing began to intensify. Lesbian women who adopted a masculine appearance came under particular criticism. According to art historian Lola Charney, these women challenged the traditional control of a male-dominated social system through both their clothing and their sexual identities. Newspapers published caricatures and satirical illustrations of them. These images portrayed women who defied social conventions as objects of both fascination and fear, helping reinforce restrictions on their freedom.
Although the ban on women wearing trousers was strictly enforced, they were permitted to wear men’s-style clothing while cycling. This exemption was later extended to horse riding as well. However, cycling was not free from the interference of a male-dominated society in women’s lives. Initially, doctors expressed concern about women riding bicycles, but later they described cycling as beneficial to health. They believed it would make women healthier and help France produce stronger mothers. For women, however, a bicycle was more than just a means of transport; it became a symbol of freedom. During the Belle Époque, cycling gave women an opportunity to move beyond the confines of their homes and traditional social restrictions.
The renowned painter Rosa Bonheur was among the few women who received official permission to wear trousers for specific reasons. She was initially granted permission on health grounds when she travelled with her partner to the mountainous region of the Pyrenees. Later, she was also allowed to wear men’s clothing when visiting slaughterhouses, as she wanted to conduct research and observe animals for her paintings. According to her biographer, Catherine Hewitt, men’s clothing gradually became part of Rosa Bonheur’s public identity, and she began to make this distinctive image more prominent.
Despite social opposition, Paris had an active and visible lesbian culture in the final years of the 19th century. Mathilde de Morny, also known as Missy, was one of its prominent figures. She was the daughter of the Duke de Morny and married the Marquis de Belbeuf in a union based primarily on social and practical considerations. Her husband was also homosexual, and the couple divorced in 1903. Rather than concealing her homosexuality, Missy adopted a distinctive and prominent masculine style of dress. She also had a romantic relationship with the renowned writer Colette. In her novel The Pure and the Impure, Colette created a fictional character inspired by Missy.
Born into a wealthy American family, painter Romaine Brooks spent much of her life in Paris, where her long-term partner, Natalie Clifford Barney, also lived. With her short hair and elegantly tailored masculine clothing, Brooks had a distinctive style. She moved in circles of wealthy and unconventional Europeans and Americans in Paris, including many women involved in creative professions and lesbian communities. Her self-portrait, painted in 1923, reflects her distinctive style of dress, which combined masculine and feminine features.
Most lesbian women who adopted men’s clothing were neither wealthy nor famous. They were ordinary women who wanted to live according to their identities and preferences. According to exhibition curator Mairin Kiziel, these women’s freedom to wear the clothing of their choice depended on their strategies, their ability to conceal their identities or present themselves differently to others, and the social circumstances in which they lived. Historical records are unavailable for many of these women, but photographs from the period suggest that the number of women who adopted this way of life was considerable.
The ban on women wearing trousers in Paris remained legally in force for more than two centuries, until it was formally repealed in 2013. Although the law had largely ceased to be enforced several decades earlier, its continued legal existence served as a reminder of the long struggle women had to endure even to gain the freedom to choose their clothing. Today, wearing trousers is an ordinary part of life for women in Paris. However, this freedom also reflects the courage and struggle of women who dared to challenge the rigid social conventions of their time.
